The Donation of Constantine Essay Example for Free

The Donation of Constantine Essay The Donation of Constantine has been considered a forgery, especially since 1440 A. D. by Lorenzo Valla in his Declamatio: â€Å"So all these are yours, supreme pontiff? And it is your purpose to recover them all? To despoil all kings and princes of the West of their cities or compel them to pay you a yearly tribute, is that your plan? † (Valla, 27) â€Å"The Donation† is a very controversial document that became an instrument used by the Papacy to ‘officially justify’ its political power and control. This fraudulent document has been thought to have been written 5 centuries later, between 750 and 800 A. D. The basis of the document itself was the transfer of power from Constantine to Pope Sylvester when Constantine converted to Christianity by baptism in 324 A. D. : â€Å"So the pontiffs, who are the representatives of that same chief of the apostles, should obtain from us and our empire the power of a supremacy greater than the earthly clemency of our imperial serenity is seen to have had conceded to it, (†¦)And we ordain and decree that he shall have the supremacy as well over the four chief seats Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople and Jerusalem, as also over all the churches of God in the -whole world. And he who for the time being shall be pontiff of that holy Roman church shall be more exalted than, and chief over, all the priests of the whole world† (Donatio Constantini) The reality, however, was that Constantine had been baptized later in 337 A. D. , by the Bishop of Rome. The donation in question consisted in surrendering the imperial insignia, the Lateran Palace, and the Roman and Italian territories. Besides, Rome was the capital of the great Roman Empire and the seat of the Apostles. So, the idea was that these Bishops of Rome, the representatives of Christ, should inherit Rome and its seat. In the beginning, the Bishop of Rome at the time of Constantine was not a very powerful public figure. Nevertheless, he benefited from his closeness with Constantine who had been in Rome to quietly and gradually assert authority as the head of the Emperor’s religion. (Williams, 522) The rise of the predominance of the Bishops of Rome ‘owning Rome and Christianity’ was subsequently supported by different rulers like Theodosius the Great who instituted a law that stated that any nation seeking the protection of the Pope in Rome would have to become a Christian nation. (Williams, 523) Unfortunately, numerous upheavals in power in the territories surrounding Rome became evident when pagan nations moved into Britain; Arian Kings moved into the remaining West while the Lombards established their domination next door to Rome. They were not the only threat to the authority of the Pope of Rome. At the same time, the emperor of Constantinople had been an enemy of the Pope; the emperor had even tried to assassinate him. (Williams, 524) The only way for the Pope (Stephen II or III) to secure his power was to enlist the help of a powerful ruler with whom he could forge an alliance. This ruler was the Frankish king Pepin III, nicknamed â€Å"Le Bref,† French for â€Å"the Short. † Pepin the Short became an ally against the Lombards who were dangerously threatening to take over all the Italian territory. In order to get the help from the Frankish king, Stephen traveled through the Alps all the way to Gaul where he anointed Pepin as well as his two sons Carloman and Charlemagne. Subsequently, Pepin and his two sons battled the Lombards, beat them, and took over their territory, formerly a Byzantine territory. In order to fulfill their alliance, Pepin gave this territory to Stephen in the Donation of Pepin, freeing Rome from Byzantine control. This conferred authority over these territories was the beginning of the papal states, dramatically increasing the political influence and religious power of the papacy. The papal power was confirmed and supported by Charlemagne. In 799, Pope Leo III had been mistreated by the Romans and sequestered. Charlemagne came to his aid and Leo crowned him emperor on December 25, 800 A. D. Charlemagne became the renewer of the Western Roman Empire and kept up his father’s relations with the Pope while becoming his protector. Charlemagne was a ruler always at war for most of his reign and conquered many lands like Saxonia, forcing the pagan population to embrace Roman Catholicism. (Ganhof, 220) (Becher, 19-81) Conclusion The ascension of Charlemagne to the throne originated from his father’s alliance with the papacy. Around 750 A. D. , the Donation of Constantine falsely validated the Pope’s authority on Rome and the Italian territory. This authority was confirmed and supported by Charlemagne whose loyalty to the Pope earned him the imperial seat of the Western Roman Empire. He was crowned in 800 A. D. by Pope Leo III. Works Cited Valla L. Discourse on the Forgery of the Alleged Donation of Constantine. Trans. by Christopher B. Coleman. Scanned Proofread by Jonathan Perry. New Haven: Yale University Press 1922. Hanover Historical Texts Project. 2001. Donatio Constantini. 750-800AD. The Medieval Sourcebook. The Fordham University of Medieval Studies. July 22, 2006: December 3, 2006. Williams SH. The Historian’s History of the World: A Comprehensive Narrative of the Rise and Development of the Roman Empire. History Association Publication, 1904. Ganshof, F. L. The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy: Studies in Carolingian History, trans. Janet Sondheimer, Ithaca, N. Y. : Cornell University Press, 1971. Becher, M. Charlemagne, trans. David S. Bachrach, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003.

Juvenile Recidivism Essay -- delinquency, rehabilitation, Risks Assess

Introduction: Recidivism or, habitual relapses into crime, has time and time again proven to be an issue among delinquents, which thereby increases the overall juvenile prison population. This issue has become more prevalent than what we realize. Unless a unit for measuring a juvenile’s risk of recidivism is enacted and used to determine a system to promote effective prevention, than the juvenile prison population will continue to increase. Our court system should not only focus on punishing the said juvenile but also enforce a program or policy that will allow for prevention of recidivism. So the question remains, how can recidivism in the juvenile prison population be prevented so that it is no longer the central cause for increased juvenile delinquency? Simply put, we must create a means of measuring juvenile’s level of risk and in turn, form an effective rehabilitation program that will decrease their risk level for future recidivism. Show the problem exists: â€Å"Critics of the juvenile justice system claim that approximately 500,000 youths who move through to the nation’s pretrial detention centers each year—70 percent of them nonviolent offenders—are thousands too many and that this experience may even increase the chances that they will commit more crimes and go â€Å"deeper† into the system† (Hardy 2007). These numbers are staggering. Of these half a million youths 350,000 of them will be re-incarcerated in just a matter of 12 months or less. This is an epidemic that can no longer be avoided. The arrest rates for juvenile violent offenses have also significantly increased over the past few decades with a 61% rise in arrests for violent offenses, even despite the fact that violent offenders are a relatively small proportion... ...OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS HELD FOR JUVENILE DELINQUENTS IN TURKEY. Education, 130(3), 384-398. Furniss, J. (2009). Fighting for the Futures of Young Offenders. Corrections Today, 71(3), 36. LU, A. (2011, October 30). Jailing Fewer Would Trim County Costs, Official Says. New York Times. p. 25B. Tulman, J. B. (2008). Time to Reverse the School-to-Prison Pipeline. (Cover story). Policy & Practice (19426828), 66(1), 22-27. Mulder, E., Brand, E., Bullens, R., & Van Marle, H. (2010). A classification of risk factors in serious juvenile offenders and the relation between patterns of risk factors and recidivism. Criminal Behaviour & Mental Health, 20(1), 23-38. doi:10.1002/cbm.754 Teitelman, R. B., & Linhares, G. J. (2013). JUVENILE DETENTION REFORM IN MISSOURI: IMPROVING LIVES, IMPROVING PUBLIC SAFETY, AND SAVING MONEY. Albany Law Review, 76(4), 2011-2017.

Chemical Equilibrium: Le Chatelier Principle Essay

This experiment entitled â€Å"Chemical Equilibrium† aims to help students to investigate the effects of concentration and temperature upon the position of equilibrium in a cobalt chloride solution, Co(H2O)62+. In this experiment, cobalt crystal is dissolved with distilled water and ethanol which the initial colour is purple-pinkish and a few drops of concentration of HCl is added to the test tube, the final colour is in deep blue colour. Upon the effect of concentration and temperature, the equilibrium will shift backward in the reaction with accordance with Le Chatelier’s principle producing more HCl molecules. This means that equilibrium rate of forward and backward reactions were met. In result, this reaction is endothermic. Introduction Chemical equilibrium is the state in which a chemical reaction proceeds at the same rate as its reverse reaction; the rate of forward and reverse reaction are equal, and the concentration of the reactants and products stop changing1. When this condition was met, there was no change in the proportions of the various compounds involved, and the reaction ceases to progress. The equilibrium state has a dynamic – that is, active – nature being characterized by the simultaneous and continuous formation of products from the reactants and reactants from the products2. But these simultaneous reactions do not necessarily follow that the concentrations of the reactants is equal to that of the product(s). Instead, the ratio of the concentrations of the reactants to the concentration of the product(s) raised to their coefficient in the balanced equation is Keq, a constant. Taking the Le Chatelier’s principle into consideration, there are factors that may shift or influence the position of equilibrium4. The Le Chatelier’s principle states that if stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium will tend to shift in the direction which will relieve the applied stress. Some factors that can affect are concentration, temperature and pressure. Alterations in the system’s conditions at equilibrium may favour either a forward or backward shift. The objectives of the experiment are: to evaluate how the change in concentration and the change in temperature affect the equilibrium system, to explain the effects of these changes in the equilibrium system, and to interpret the results based on the Le Chatelier’s principle. Experiment Materials & Equipments: †¢3 Test tubes †¢Cold water bath †¢Concentrated HCl †¢60mL of Ethanol †¢Cobalt (II) Chloride crystal †¢Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) †¢H2O, distilled water Changes in color (specifically intensity), appearances and reactions should be observed and taken note of throughout the experiment. To begin this experiment, cobalt (II) chloride crystal is added into a new test tube and dissolve it with distilled water. Make sure the solution is mixed well before adding concentration of HCl. Continuously adding drops of concentration of HCl into the test tube until the solution turns deep blue in colour. After that, separate the new solution to 2 new test tube. Test tube 1 is placed into a cold water bath to analyse the final colour of the solution when it encounters cool surrounding. Silver nitrate (AgNO3) is added into test tube 2 and is mixed well. Observations were recorded, and direction of shift was deduced from the observations. If the reagent caused the mixture to shift to a lighter colour, then the direction of shift is backward. If the reagent caused the mixture to shift to a darker colour, then the direction of shift is forward.

Should The Death Penalty Be Abolished - 1350 Words

Should the death penalty be abolished? The death penalty, also known as capital punishment is a legal procedure in which a state executes a person for crimes he/she has committed. This punishment has been used by many states, and is normally used for serious crimes, especially murder. It is also used on crimes against the state such as treason, crimes against humanity, espionage, and violent crimes while other states use it as part of military justice. There are mixed reactions on capital punishment depending on one’s faith, and the state they come from. In my view, I am not in favor of death penalty, as I strongly believe that, death penalty is unacceptable and an inhumane practice for it denies one the right to live. Death penalty does†¦show more content†¦Therefore, killing a criminal cannot overcome a crime nor bring back the life of the person who was killed by the person convicted of murder. Death penalty sends a bad message to the society. The people in the society are made to believe that human life has no value, and when one commits a heinous crime like murder, they deserve to die. This is a bad message to the society because, the society should be taught to respect each others life and that every individual has a right to life. A humane society does not kill or support the killing of their fellow human beings, therefore, capital punishment is a violent homicide that teaches the society the permissibility of killing in order to solve social issues, and this is a bad sign. Hence, death penalty should not be allowed because it is the worst example to the society. Death penalty should be scrapped because it can lead to the execution of innocent people. The justice system is bound to make mistakes and so, the accused people should be given a chance to appeal, and prove their innocence other than being murdered because of mistakes made by judges. There are many cases where individuals are imprisoned and later on proved to be innocent and released. Anyways , this can be evidenced by the rising number of cases where individuals are released from death row after more investigations has been done on their cases, and found innocent. In such cases, ifShow MoreRelatedThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1192 Words   |  5 PagesNo Death Penalty Capital crime is something that is meant for people that are found guilty of committing a serious crime, such as murder, rape, or theft. These are offences that should not be taken lightly but by killing the offender, the government is carrying about the action that they are trying to prevent. Also, the wrong person may be sentenced to death. After this person is executed, there is obviously nothing that can be done for the terrible mistake to be reversed. The death penalty shouldRead MoreShould The Death Penalty Be Abolished?. The Death Penalty982 Words   |  4 PagesShould the death penalty be abolished? The death penalty is a â€Å"term that applies to capital punishment and is the worst penalty given for committing a murder or an atrocious assault.† (Black s Law Dictionary). Death penalty has been a part of human society and is legally approved for centuries. The first established death penalty laws date as far back as the Eighteenth Century B.C. in the Code of King Hammaurabi of Babylon, which codified the death penalty for 25 different crimes. Death sentencesRead MoreShould The Death Penalty Be Abolished?1925 Words   |  8 Pages Abstract This paper explores five published articles that report on discussion on the very old and yet to answer question of whether the death penalty in the USA should be abolished? The articles, however, vary in their stand on death penalty. In all article it is very different on publisher stand. They discuss thing argument with their own way and vision of thinking. Adina Nicoleta (2011) has raised question for fair trial on the proceeding of the criminal cases. In other article Maestro MarcelloRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1534 Words   |  7 PagesIntro The death penalty gives humans in our legal system rights to decide who deserves to live, a power only God should possess. Capital Punishment takes away our rights as equals. From its origins, the death penalty has been an inhumane, costly, ineffective, and biased form of punishment that needs to be abolished granting everyone their right to live. History of the Death Penalty Down through history, the death penalty has been adapted to be justifiable in the eyes of the people. By alteringRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1523 Words   |  7 Pagescriminals has been performed by nearly every society to date. The death penalty came to the Americas when European settlers brought the idea of capitol punishment from Britain. The ideology behind taking someone’s life for crimes they have committed is a simple one. If a person commits a hennas crime such as murder or rape, they shall receive the death penalty. In more recent times we now see many countries abolishing the death penalty. The trend suggests that the capitol punishment policies still implementedRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1306 Words   |  6 Pageschanged since the 17th century, so why not the age old penalty of death? Capital punishment in the United States is a highly debated topic. Arguments that want to get rid of this method of punishment usually mention th e many problems that capital punishment is plagued with. The death penalty has many issues that cannot be resolved, and since these issues can’t be solved, the death penalty should be abolished. â€Å"The irrevocable nature of the death penalty renders it an unsustainable and indefensible remedyRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1440 Words   |  6 PagesThe death penalty is a very controversial topic in the United States. It is implemented for the purpose of providing safety to the community and bringing justice to victims and their families. The death penalty is legal in thirty-one states (â€Å"31 States†), and there are over forty different types of federal capital crimes that are eligible for the death penalty. These include crimes such as treason and kidnapping that results in murder (â€Å"41 Federal†). However, many argue whether the death penalty isRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished968 Words   |  4 PagesEvery year, thousands of lives are legally taken under the death penalty. Why should we take more lives than the ones that have already been taken? The death penalty is the punishment of execution, carried out legally against an individual convicted of a capital crime. Its proponents argue that the death penalty deters other criminals who may intend to commit similar crimes in the future. However, there is little statistical evidence to support this claim. Also, execution eliminates the criminalRead MoreShould The Death Penalty Be Abolished?1443 Words   |  6 Pages 6 Should the Death Penalty Be Abolished in the United States? Adalynne Francis CRJU 1000 Dr. Huss November 14, 14 Should capital punishment/ death penalty be abolished in the United States? Many feel that the death penalty is immoral and question whether the state and federal government deserve the right to kill those whom it has imprisoned. On the other hand, those opposed feel that by not acting upon the death penalty communities would plunge in anarchy and that byRead MoreThe Death Penalty Should Be Abolished1691 Words   |  7 PagesThesis: The death penalty has to be abolished if American society wishes to progress. I. Introduction The death penalty, or capital punishment, is an archaic and barbaric practice; a fallacy of the criminal justice system. II. In the history of death penalty tells the accounts of the dramatic change over four centuries III. Counter argument A. Justice is the leading argument of supporters of capital punishment B. Supporters of the death penalty argue that the death penalty provides retribution